Alfred Simukoko
University of Lusaka (UNILUS)
Abstract
This study sought to examine the role played by primary school managers in addressing infrastructure development challenges in Senga-Hill District in Zambia. A case study of four primary schools was conducted with a sample size of 80 participants comprising 20 head teachers, 20 deputy head teachers, 20 senior teachers and 20 PTA chairpersons who were purposely selected from sampled schools. Purposive selection of participants was possible because schools had head teachers, deputy head teachers, senior teachers and PTA chair persons already established. The study employed qualitative research method and data was collected using semi-structured interviews. The data collected were grouped in themes which were analysed further to come up with findings. This study established that school infrastructure development was tasked to school administrators and PTA. The study also found out that school managers and the government were committed to improve infrastructure development in primary schools, though resources were inadequate. The study concluded that the head teacher, deputy head teacher, senior teachers, class teachers, PTA, prefects and class representatives were all crucial in the effective management of school infrastructure. The study recommended collaborative effort between communities and the Ministry of General Education in the development of infrastructure and to identify challenges encountered by school managers in addressing issues of infrastructure development.
Background
The backlog in infrastructure development in Zambian Primary Schools is enormous. Schools country wide, especially in rural areas depend on minor funding schemes such as Community Development Fund (CDF) to improve infrastructure. Unfortunately, communities depend on CDF funding to accomplish nearly all developmental programmes. For instance, the health, agriculture, and road infrastructure development sectors all depend on CDF funding. Although most community projects depend on CDF, it is only provided once in a year to a large community such as a ward in a constituency. As a result, many schools, primary and secondary, inclusive are poorly equipped with infrastructure.
Some non-government organisations, such as World Vision, UNICEF, FAWEZA and UNESCO have been providing assistance to a number of schools. These included the upgrading of minor facilities such as provision of desks, classroom, construction of toilets and water points. These attempts to improve infrastructure in primary schools are not sufficient. They all focus on the most needed basics. In fact, only a small number of schools benefited from these funding programmes. While a few primary schools had received funds for construction of either staff houses or a 1x2 or 1x3 classroom block with an office or two, funds seem not to be enough to address the challenge of infrastructure in primary schools. This research, therefore, sought to examine the role played by primary school managers on infrastructure development in Senga-Hill District (SHD). The research was also intended to investigate the relationship that existed between various school managers and administrators
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of Educational Infrastructure
According to World Bank (2017) educational infrastructure refer to all the facilities required for effective teaching and learning such as furniture, science and computer laboratories, store rooms, kitchen and cooking utensils.
Importance of Educational Infrastructure
The quality of education is determined by the condition, location and nature of available school infrastructure (The World Bank, 2004). The closer a school is to learners’ homes, the higher the chances that they are to attend school programmes. This is attributed to reduced distance and security issues. Improved quality infrastructure such as water and sanitation facilities plays an important role in improving enrolment and completion rates (The World Bank, 2019). Teacher absenteeism is also reduced if infrastructure is improved. Improved conditions of school facilities bring about desired learning outcomes.
Infrastructure is essential to achieve effective learning. Thus, buildings, classrooms, laboratories and equipment are important components of any learning environment in school, college or universities. Infrastructure of high quality improves students learning. They open doors for better instruction and improve outcomes of the students. Research by Barrett et al (2016) revealed that environmental and elements of school infrastructure in collaboration accounted for 16 percent of differences in primary school learners’ progress academically.
Government’s commitment to improving Infrastructure in Education
According to Nawa (2015) government increased the budgetary allocation to the education sector in 2015. Nawa (2015) further indicated that K9.4 billion, representing 20.2 percent of the total budget was allocated to the education sector. In this budget however, 68 percent of the allocation was for the recruitment of 5000 teachers to sustain the set establishment both in primary and secondary schools. Over 20 percent was aimed at reducing the pupil to teacher ratio. According to (National Assembly, 2015) only K1.1 billon went towards infrastructure development for Early Childhood Education (ECE), Primary and secondary education. This was inadequate to cater for infrastructure development for the three levels of education, ECE, primary and secondary.
Problem of infrastructure development in Primary schools
Although the government is committed to improving the quality of infrastructure in schools, investment in infrastructure is inadequate (Nawa, 2015). Schools in the marginalised areas face the biggest challenge (The World Bank, 2017). One of the silent killers attacking the education sector is poor or lack of infrastructure for large numbers of the poorest children, not only in Zambia, but the entire world. The challenge of infrastructure is attributed to insufficient annual budgetary allocation from the national budgets.
Communities and School Infrastructure challenges as indicated in the 1996 national policy on education-Educating our Future
Affecting problems of access and the use made of school provision are a number of issues related to school infrastructure. The over-use of school buildings, through multiple sessions and large classes, coupled with the near-absence of public funds for school maintenance and repairs, has left most schools in an unacceptably poor physical condition. Except in a few rehabilitated schools, classrooms are typically bare, with few or no desks, no teacher's table or chair, and a broken chalkboard. In rural areas a large proportion of the classrooms, possibly as many as 20 percent of the total number, are temporary mud and grass structures. Almost half the rural schools do not have their own source of safe drinking water, while urban schools have grown well beyond their planned size, but without any commensurate increase in sanitary facilities. These factors affect the public perception of schools and what they have to offer. They also affect the ability of the schools to provide education of reasonable quality.
There is also the question of the community's sense of ownership for its school. In some places this is well developed, but many communities still feel little or no responsibility towards the schools their children attend. Education is regarded as the government's responsibility and the schools as government property. One of the challenges facing educational provision today, particularly in impoverished rural areas, is to re-awaken an awareness that the first responsibility for the education of children rests with families and with the wider community in which families live. Aspects of this challenge are a deepening of the community's sense of ownership for the local school and a fostering of interest in the maintenance of its fabric.
The composition of school management
In the Zambian context, school management comprises the head teacher, deputy head teacher, senior teacher and the Parents Teachers Association at primary level (MoE, 1996). At secondary level, senior teachers are replaced by heads of departments.
Research Questions
What is the role played by school managers in addressing infrastructure development?
Is there cordial relationship between various school administrators, on one hand, and the PTA on the other?
What challenges are encountered by school managers in addressing issues of infrastructure development?
Research Objectives
The aims of this research were to:
Examine the role played by school managers in infrastructure development.
Investigate the relationship between various school administrators, on one hand, and the PTA on the other.
Identify challenges encountered by school managers in addressing issues of infrastructure development.
METHODOLOGY
Design
The study adopted the qualitative design as it was seeking perceptions, accomplishments and challenges among many other attributes of infrastructure development in primary schools.
Samples
Key informants of the interviews were head teachers, deputy head teacher, senior teacher and PTA committee members. Four primary schools were sampled with a sample size of 80 participants comprising 20 head teachers, 20 deputy head teachers, 20 senior teachers and 20 PTA chairpersons who were purposely selected from sampled schools.
Method
Data collection was through interviewing informants. These participated in the research through semi-structured interviews with both open and closed questions. The researcher first sought permission from the District Education Board authorities to conduct the research and then asked for informed consent from the respondents who were free to participate in the study or withdraw at any particular time. The participants’ anonymity and confidentiality were upheld by the researcher.
FIMDINGS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
School management
The findings of the study revealed that school management at primary level was tasked to administrators and the PTA. School administration comprised the head, deputy and senior teachers. On the other hand, the PTA committee was made up of the chairperson and vice who were parents, the secretary and vice who were the head and deputy head teachers respectively and 4 other parents and 2 teachers who were members. Parents are elected on a two year tenure of office to be chairperson, vice, treasurer, or member of the PTA committee. The teachers assumed their positions in PTA committee by virtue of their duties and responsibilities in the school. In all the schools that participated in the study, the PTA committee consisted of ten (10) members. In addition to school administrators and PTA committee members, class teachers and prefects also played essential roles in infrastructure development. Class teachers and prefects are essential in the effective management of school infrastructure. For instance, teachers spend several hours every day with the learners while accessing various school facilities. For these facilities to last longer, class teachers are key. Prefects and class Representatives also played an important role of managing their colleagues. They supervised cleaning of classrooms and the school environment. In order to curb damage of facilities during cleaning, prefects are key. For this reason, school managers are numerous. This study found out that head teachers, deputy head teachers, senior teachers, class teachers, prefects and class Representatives were all important in the management of school infrastructure.
The roles of head teachers in infrastructure development
The head teacher in a primary school plays a central role in infrastructure development. He or she is the chief planner of all school programmes and projects. The head teacher guides the PTA, Project and Preventive Maintenance and Rehabilitation committees by planning and proposing projects and making relevant applications and recommendations to various aiding institutions such as non-governmental organisations and District Education Board Secretary (DEBS) office in particular. The head teacher monitors and supervises the maintenance of infrastructure in the school. This is essential in improving learner performance. Similarly, MoE (2004) contend that attractive buildings and beautiful surroundings make a school a pleasant environment for teaching and learning.
There are many indicators of school infrastructure. These include building structures, latrines, furniture, equipment etc. In scaling up the school infrastructure, The Word Bank (2017) revealed that the Ministry of General Education recommended infrastructure development projects to comprise:
1 x 3 classroom block
1 x 2 classroom block
administration block
Furniture
Equipment
ablution block or latrines
water supply
incinerator
staff house and
Power supply.
The role of the head teacher, therefore, is to ensure that the school has necessary infrastructure. The head teacher is responsible for generating funds in the school. He or she plans for fundraising ventures in the school. The most common fundraising venture in primary schools was found to be Production Unit, where schools grew crops such as beans, maize, sorghum, millet and sugar canes and reared animals such as pigs, goats, cattle and birds. Funds raised from various money making ventures were used to improve infrastructure, among many other needs in primary schools. This was a response to government’s call for compulsory production unit in all learning institutions. Schools also received quarterly grants called NIF which had a 30 percent allocation for infrastructure development. The role of the head teacher is to identify needy areas and prepare budgets to be presented to DEBS for approval. The head teacher encourages community participation in infrastructure development through provision of labour or in kind. In addition, head teachers lobby for funds to facilitate infrastructure development. They also persuade funding agencies such as the Area Development Committee and non-governmental organisations to fund projects in their schools.
The roles of deputy head teachers in infrastructure development
The deputy head teacher works under the overall direction of the head teacher. Regarding infrastructure development, the deputy head teacher is responsible for:
Receipt and issue of supplies.
Check classroom stock when a teacher is transferred and a new teacher takes over a class.
Conducts regular inspection of school buildings, grounds, lavatories and reporting repair required.
In collaboration with the head teacher, deputy head teachers mobilize the community to prepare up-front materials in readiness for proposed school projects.
The deputy head teacher also undertakes any professional duties of the head teacher reasonably delegated to him or her by the head teacher. In addition, they undertake the professional duties of the head teacher in his or her absence.
The roles of senior teachers in infrastructure development
The senior teacher is an academic officer in a school. In infrastructure development, however, the senior teacher ensures that the prescribed teaching and learning facilities are available and in working condition in various teaching subjects. He or she takes up the duties and responsibilities of deputy head teacher in his or her absence.
The roles of class teachers in infrastructure development
Class teachers play auxiliary roles in infrastructure development in a school. The class teacher supervises and controls effectively class activities in order to create order and conducive learning environment. This is essential in curbing premature wear and damage of school resources by the learners. In addition, the class teacher ensures that facilities are kept and used safely during class activities. Thus, he or she ensures that the classroom is clean and free from dust and checks regularly discipline of learners. Most essentially, class teachers perform any other duties as directed by the head, deputy head and senior teachers.
The roles of prefects in infrastructure development
Prefects and class representatives are crucial in infrastructure preservation in a school. They act as a bridge between school authority and pupils. Prefects are tasked with responsibility of organising activities and order in the school. This is essential in creating a better learning environment. They keep vigilance on pupils when in and out of school. Prefects play a crucial role in the maintenance of a friendly school atmosphere, cooperation, peace, discipline and unity in the school. This is crucial in the preservation of school facilities. Kambilima (2015) argued that prefects have advantage over teachers in maintaining discipline among pupils in that learners look up to them and as such enforcing rules is a much easier task for prefects than teachers. Class representatives, commonly referred to as monitors, also have the responsibility to assist the class teacher maintain a good order in their own classrooms. Thus, class monitors play an important role in preserving classroom facilities from damage whenever the teacher is not present.
The roles of PTA in infrastructure development
The PTA has overtime been an organisation that has monitored progress being made in a school. The PTA performs an essential role of fundraising money and other resources needed by the school. The PTA committee plans fund raising ventures for infrastructure development in consultation with District Education Board. The PTA also plays a crucial role in the decision making process. Therefore, the PTA is key in the effective management of the school, both at primary and secondary school levels. The PTA keeps parents and guardians informed about activities planned for the school. The PTA disciplines individuals and village headmen for failure to accomplish projects assigned to them by the committee. The PTA also plays an essential role in controlling the discipline of the learners. This is crucial in curbing vandalism and other forms of damage to school property.
As earlier alluded to, the development of infrastructure in primary schools is tasked to PTA. The committee is answerable to the community for all projects in the school. In some schools, PTA had a branch, to deal with rehabilitation and maintenance. This resulted in the formulation of the Preventive Maintenance and rehabilitation Committee as well as the Project Committee. These committees worked collaboratively with PTA. The village headmen of various catchment areas were engaged as implementers of activities that were planned by PTA, Maintenance and project committees. For instance, when the PTA committee made a programme to prepare bricks as up-front materials, villages were given a target of bricks to mould. Village headmen were responsible for ensuring that their people complete the task on time. For that reason, village head men were held accountable for failure to meet the target. Challenges encountered by school managers in addressing issues of infrastructure development.
The majority of managers of the schools that participated in the study were incompetent and lacked experience. Therefore, they did not take an active role in improving infrastructure development in their schools. However, a few schools had up-front materials such as bricks ready. The other challenge was lack of funds for infrastructure development. Only a few schools benefited from external funding for projects. Although the government is committed to improving infrastructure in primary schools, infrastructure development in most of the sampled schools was neglected.
Key challenges in school infrastructure development
Most of the sampled schools operated in dilapidated classrooms which needed either maintenance or rehabilitation. Staff houses were poorly built, most of them by the PTA. Most schools used unsafe water points such as unprotected wells and streams. There were shortage of text books for pupils, with the average ratio of 1:5. As as result, learners' performance was compromised. Smilarly, the World Bank (2017) found out that the Zambian government, with its limited resources, was committed to improving infrastructure in schools. The 2016 World Bank Review (PER) of the education sector identified two factors in addition to the shortage of classrooms – that had helped to account for the country’s low learning outcomes. These were the shortage of textbooks and lack of feedback. There were severe feedback loops between students’ learning performance and those sector inputs directly related to students’ achievement. The major backlog of school infrastructure development was lack of funding. For this reason, the World Bank funded the construction of 82 primary and secondary schools in Muchinga, Luapula, Southern, Eastern, Central and Lusaka provinces trough the Zambia Education Enhancement Programme (ZEEP) (The World Bank, 2017).
The other challenge that most school managers faced was lack of collaboration between the various management partiners. The findings of this study revealed that there was no cordial relationship between the head and the deputy head teacher in most schools. The same situation existed between the deputy head and the senior teacher. It was observed that there are overriding responsibilities between the head and the deputy as well as between the deputy and the senior teacher. The study also revealed that collaboration between the head teacher and the PTA chairperson was problematic. In most cases, head teachers were putting more pressure on the PTA to take their view points. This study also found out that the deteriorated relationship between the head teacher and the PTA chairperson was attributed to influences of the deputy head teachers who in most cases campaigned against their head teachers and unaccountable use of resources by either parties, the head teacher or chairperson.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusion
The study revealed that the head teacher, deputy head teacher, senior teachers, class teachers, prefects and class representatives were all crucial in the effective management of infrastructure. They all played an essential role in improving the quality and availability of school infrastructure. Although school management and the government are committed to improve the quality of infrastructure, many learning institutions had a backlog in infrastructure. Poor or shortage of high quality infrastructure in many schools had compromised learner performance in several schools.
Recommendations
Government should sensitise the community on their roles in infrastructure development in a school so that they can improve sense of ownership. This will curb dependence on government funding of infrastructure development.
Enhance partnership between communities and the Ministry of General Education (MoGE) in the development of infrastructure.
School should provide feedback on the progress of funded projects to the funding agency, organisation or institution.
Government should increase funding and budget allocations for infrastructure development. More NGOs should come on board to assist in infrastructure development of primary schools.
MoGE should prepare guidelines that will clarify the roles and boundaries of the head and deputy head teacher, the head teacher and PTA chairperson, the deputy and senior teachers. In the case where guidelines already exist, MoGE must sensitise the conflicting parties.
Government must ensure additional school facilities so that every child has a fair and equal chance of being admitted to and continuing in school.
REFERENCES
Das, J. et al. (2004). Public and Private Funding of Basic education in Zambia: Implications
of Budgetary Allocation for Service Delivery. Africa Region Human Development
Working Paper Series. The World Bank.
Kambilima, T. (August, 2015). Prefects have a vital role to play in schools. Zambia Daily
Mail Limited.
MoE, (1996). Educating our Future. National policy on Education. Lusaka, Zambia
Educational Publishing House.
MoE (2004). Indicators of Standards in Schools: Manual for Head Teachers. Education
Boards Services.
National Assembly. (2015). 2015 Budget-Address Delivered to the National Assembly on
Friday 10th October, 2014.
Nawa, D. (2015). Increase of funds in education cardinal to development. Zambia Daily Mail
Limited.
World Bank. (August, 2017). Project Appraisal Document on a proposed credit
in the
Amount of US$60 Million Equivalent to the republic of Zambia for an Education
Enhancement Project. International Development Association. Report No PAD1856.
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